India-Turkey relations: From ancient trade to modern tensions

India and Turkey, two nations with deep-rooted civilisations, have been connected for over 3,500 years. From the bustling ancient trade routes of the Vedic age to the sharp diplomatic rifts of the 21st century, their relationship has seen remarkable shifts.

What began as an exchange of goods and culture has evolved into a complex web of political alliances, military strategies, and ideological divides. Here’s how India–Turkey relations have transformed across the centuries.

Ancient links: Trade and shared exchanges between civilisations

Long before the rise of empires and modern borders, ancient India and Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) were linked through land and maritime trade routes. Archaeological and textual evidence indicates that goods like spices, textiles, precious stones, and metals flowed between the Indian subcontinent and the Hittite and later Anatolian civilisations. These trade routes not only carried commodities but also facilitated the movement of ideas, languages, and religions.

In the Vedic age — around 1500 BCE — India's influence extended beyond its immediate neighbours. Meanwhile, Anatolia served as a cultural and economic crossroads between Asia and Europe. Despite the absence of direct political relations during this era, mutual awareness existed through intermediaries such as Persian and central Asian traders.

The Khilafat connection: A spiritual alliance

The medieval and early modern periods marked a new chapter in India–Turkey ties, particularly during the rule of the Ottoman Empire. As the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, the Ottoman Sultan was revered by many Indian Muslims. This religious and symbolic bond became politically significant during the early 20th century.

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the wake of World War I, Indian Muslim leaders launched the Khilafat Movement (1919–1924), demanding that the British protect the Ottoman Caliphate. Remarkably, this movement found unexpected support from the Indian National Congress, then led by Mohandas K Gandhi. The Khilafat cause was seen as a means to unite Hindus and Muslims in the freedom struggle against British colonial rule.

While the movement ultimately failed with the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924, it left a lasting imprint. It symbolised a rare moment of Indo-Turkish solidarity, grounded not in political expedience but in shared values and mutual respect.

Post-Partition divergence: Cold War realignments

The Partition of India in 1947 not only redrew southern Asia’s political map but also altered its global alignments. Pakistan, emerging as a new Islamic state, claimed the mantle of Muslim solidarity once associated with the Khilafat cause. Turkey, newly secular under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk but still geopolitically strategic, began to align with the West.

By the 1950s, Turkey had joined NATO and increasingly backed Pakistan in international forums, including on the contentious Kashmir issue. India, on the other hand, adopted a policy of non-alignment, seeking to maintain equidistance from both NATO and the Soviet bloc. This divergence cooled bilateral relations, and India–Turkey engagement remained minimal throughout much of the Cold War.

A brief thaw in the 1980s

The mid-1980s offered a fleeting window of diplomacy. In 1986, Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited Turkey and met with then-President Turgut Özal, signalling an interest in improving ties. The visit led to modest increases in trade and cultural exchanges, though no major strategic cooperation followed.

This détente was largely pragmatic. Both countries recognised the need to avoid deepening mutual suspicions and sought to compartmentalise political disagreements from economic interests. However, the rapprochement was short-lived, and the post-Cold War landscape soon brought new challenges.

Erdogan era: Solidarity with Pakistan and the Kashmir bogey

The rise of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan marked a significant shift in Turkey’s foreign policy. With a more assertive Islamic identity and a neo-Ottoman vision, Erdoğan repositioned Turkey as a vocal advocate for Muslim causes worldwide, including the Kashmir issue, arguably viewing India as a hostile Hindu nation!

After 2008, Turkey began to deepen its ties with Pakistan, including military cooperation and public diplomatic support. Erdoğan repeatedly raised Kashmir at international platforms such as the United Nations General Assembly, echoing Islamabad’s narrative and criticising India’s policies in Jammu and Kashmir.

These interventions were sharply criticised in New Delhi, which viewed them as unwelcome interference in its internal affairs. As Turkey’s alignment with Pakistan grew stronger, India began to reassess its regional strategy, including forming closer ties with Turkey’s traditional rival, Armenia.

A new phase of confrontation

Tensions escalated in the late 2010s. India’s military operations against cross-border terrorism — most notably Operation Sindoor — exposed the presence of Turkish-supplied drones in Pakistani territory. This revelation reinforced suspicions about Turkey’s military involvement in South Asia.

In response, India undertook a series of strategic moves, including arms deals and defence cooperation with Armenia, a country that has had its historical disputes with Turkey. These actions were not just about countering Pakistani alliances but also about signalling India's disapproval of Ankara’s growing role in the Kashmir dispute.

Additionally, India began to scale back academic and business collaborations with Turkish institutions. Calls for the boycott of Turkish goods surfaced, particularly after Erdoğan’s provocative comments on Kashmir. While not official policy, this public sentiment reflected a broader deterioration in trust.

Where do India–Turkey relations stand today?

Today, India and Turkey find themselves on opposite ends of a growing geopolitical chasm. What began as a relationship forged through trade and mutual admiration has become strained by ideological differences and competing regional interests.

Turkey’s identification with Pakistan and its consistent rhetoric on Kashmir have undermined its standing in New Delhi. Meanwhile, India’s growing influence in the Middle East, its strategic partnership with Armenia, and its increasing military capabilities have altered the regional balance.

Yet, despite these tensions, there remains potential for recalibration. Both countries are G20 economies, both have aspirations for greater global influence, and both can benefit from engagement over confrontation.

Ancient ties, modern divides

The history of India–Turkey relations is a compelling example of how civilisation-related links can evolve into geopolitical rivalries. From Vedic-era trade to Cold War pragmatism and today’s strategic conflicts, the bilateral relationship has been anything but static.

Whether the current downturn is permanent or part of a cyclical pattern remains to be seen. What is clear, however, is that India and Turkey must decide whether they wish to remain adversaries on the global stage — or rediscover the collaborative spirit that once connected them across continents and centuries.